مقدمة
إذا كان لنا أن نسأل أنفسنا اليوم عن مستقبل الكتاب المطبوع، فذلك لأن منافسه، وهو الكتاب الإلكتروني، لم يعد موضوعا للخيال العلمي ولا أداة تكنولوجية محصورة بين بعض الهواة المغرمين بالمستجدات. فهو ظهر في واجهات المكتبات، وعلى كتالوجات الناشرين الأكثر سمعة، ويجذب الزوار في أجنحة مختلف معارض الكتب. يمكن قراءته في قرص مرن، وقرص مدمج، على الخط في شبكة الأنترنت، وقريبا في أجهزة مخصصة لقراءة الكتاب الإلكتروني يُتوقَّعُ أن يظهر نموذجها الفرنسي الأول في معرض الكتاب. يمكن قراءته على الشاشة كما يمكن طباعته في المنزل لقراءته ورقيا. وقد بدأت المكتبات، بما فيها المكتبة الوطنية الفرنسية، في منحه مكانته الكاملة في رفوفها الافتراضية.
مع الكتاب الرقمي يختم العصر الذي افتتحه اختراع جتنبرغ، وهو المطبعة التي أحدثت ثورة في علاقتنا بالمكتوب وبالنصوص، وجددت وصولنا إلى المعرفة وغيرت نظرتنا إلى العالم. والعصر الرقمي الذي دخلناه لن يمحو فجأة هذه القرون الخمسة من ثقافة الكتاب المطبوع، لكنه سوف ينتج تأثيرات عميقة تشبه تلك التي شكلت تفكيرنا وحساسيتنا منذ ظهور أول كتاب مقدس مطبوع إلى الرواية الجديدة.
هل ينبغي أن نقلق لهذا الوداع لجتنبرغ؟ هل سيواصلُ أطفالنا القراءة؟ على أي وسائط؟ وكيف سيقرؤون؟ هل تراثنا الأدبي مهدَّد؟ هل سنخضع لقواعد التجوال (أو التقليب) على غرار ما نفعل في مشاهدتنا للقنوات التلفزية؟ هذه الأسئلة مشروعة. وللإجابة عنها أقترح عليكم بعض الخطوط للتفكير. سأذكّر أولا ببضعة نقط حول رقمنة التراث الأدبي، ثم سأذكر وسائل نشره الجديدة، لأختتم بتأمل في إمكانيات إغناء هذا التراث وتعزيزه من خلال طرق القراءة والكتابة والتفكير الجديدة التي ستنفتحُ أمام هذا التراث.
رقمنة التراث
لم يبدأ مشروع رقمنة التراث الأدبي اليوم، فهو يعود إلى أزيد من 30 عاما، إذ قام جان كلود غاردان بتحليل مفاهيمي للقرآن الكريم على بطاقات مثقبة منذ عام 1963، كما تمَّ حوسبة فهرسة الأب روبرتو بوسا للخلاصة اللاهوتية للقديس توما الأكويني منذ عام 1951. أما اليوم، فقد تمَّ حوسبة مجمل حلقات صناعة الكتب التي نقرأها على الورق، ووحده حامل الكتابة هو الذي لم يُحوسَب بعد. وفي غضون بضع سنوات، يبدو أن مجموع تراثنا الأدبي تقريبا سيكونُ متاحا في شكل رقمي. ولفهم نتائج هذه العملية، من الضروري تقديم بعض التوضيحات.
الرقمنة بصيغة النص
يمكن رقمنة النص بطريقتين: في الأولى يتم ترميز حروف النص بمنح قيمة رقمية لكل حرف. أول ترميز هو ذلك الذي وضعه الأمريكيون، ولم يكن يسمح بتشفير سوى 128 حرفا، أما اليوم فيفكر أهل الاختصاص في معيار جديد يسمى الترميز الموحد Unicode سيتيح في نهاية المطاف تشفير جميع أنظمة الكتابة في العالم. وبتشفير الحروف الأبجدية بأرقام، يصير من المتعذر الوصول إلى هذه الحروف بدون آلة للقراءة، بالتالي فالحاسوب وحده يستطيع منح النصوص شكلا جديدا قابلا للقراءة والفهم من لدن القارئ. وتمنح هذه الميزة خصائص جديدة للنص، إذ يصير بوسعه أن يأخذ شكلا بحروف و/أو تصميمات مختلفة للصفحة باعتماد أوامر معلوماتية بسيطة، فيمكن قراءة النص ببرنامج قراءة معلوماتية (كالبحث عن سياقات معينة أو تواتر ورود كلمة أو جملة ما)، كما يمكن عرضه عرضا ديناميكيا يجعله يأخذ بُعدا زمنيا، ويمكن توليده ببرنامج معلوماتي، وتحريره من المكان بحيث يُنشرُ ويُقرأ في وقت واحد في أماكن عدة متباعدة جغرافيا.
وَعَيْبُ هذه الصيغة للرقمنة أنها تقلص النص إلى سلسلة من الحروف وتُتلِفُ خصائصه المطبعية الأصلية، أي تدمر جزءا مما ينتج معناه. وللحفاظ على هذه الخصائص، من الضروري استخدام طريقة أخرى، هي الرقمنة بصيغة الصورة.
الرقمنة بصيغة الصورة
وفيها يتم ترميز صورة النص ببيكسلات، أي بتحويل الصفحة إلى مجموعة من النقاط الصغيرة جدا يمكن عرضها على الشاشة، وبذلك تأتي نسخة الصفحة مطابقة للأصل، إذ يتم تصويرها رقميا، فيُحفَظ تصميمُها الأصلي. من منظور الحفاظ على التراث، تعتبر هذه الطريقة الثانية أفضل بكثير، وهذا هو سبب اختيارها من لدن المكتبة الوطنية الفرنسية في الشطر الأول من مشروع رقمنة مجموع ممتلكاتها. ولكن لهذه الطريقة سلبيتين: فالصورة المنقطة تشغل حيزا كبيرا جدا من الذاكرة (حوالي ألف مرة أكثر من النص)، كما لا يمكن إجراء أي معالجة معلوماتية على سلاسل حروف البيانات، ولذلك فهي ليست مناسبة للنشر على نطاق واسع، وبالتالي فهي تظل منحصرة في نطاق الباحثين الذين يشتغلون على نصوص قديمة أو قيمة ونادرة.
ترميز الوثائق وهيكلتها منطقيا
للجمع بين مزايا الطريقتين السابقتين وتجنب سلبياتهما، هناك حل آخر يتمثل في تخليل النصوص المُشفَّرة بسلاسل علامات، برموز تعرض معلومات وصفية وتخبرُ الآلة بتمفصلات النص المنطقية التي تدعمها خصائص الحروف وتوزيعها في فضاء صفحة النص المطبوع التقليدي. منذ عام 1986، تم إنشاء معيار الـ SGML (المعيار المعمم للغة التوصيف Standard Generalised Markup Language) الذي كان أساس مختلف لغات الترميز الحالية كلغة توصيف النص التشعبي HTML للشبكة الحالية بالنسبة لشبكة الأنترنت وXML الكتاب الإلكتروني المفتوح بالنسبة للنشر الإلكتروني. وعلى هذا الأساس، يرتسم اليومَ مستقبل الكتاب الالكتروني.
نشر التراث
والسؤال الذي يطرح نفسه بعد ذلك هو قضية الحامل، ونشر الكتاب الإلكتروني والوصل إليه. كيف سنقرأ، كيف سيقرأ أطفالنا كتب مكتبة المستقبل الافتراضية؟
هناك الآن ثلاثة أنواع من المنتوجات يمكن تصنيفها في ترتيب تصاعدي حسب تطورها: أساسيات (أو بنوك) البيانات النصية، والمتون المنشورة مرفقة بأدوات للقراءة، ثم الكتب الإلكترونية.
بيانات البنوك النصية
الدرجة الأولى هي النص المرقمن «الخام»، وهو الذي يُنشرُ بدون أدوات قراءة مرافقة له، ويمكن أن يأخذ شكل صورة أو نص. ونجد في هذه الفئة نصوصا منشورة في أقراص مرنة أو مدمجة أو في شبكة الأنترنت، ورقمَنَها هواة أو باحثون أو ناشرون جامعيون، وتكاد تكون دائما عبارة عن نصوص لا تعود ملكيتها الفكرية لأحد، نصوص غالبا ما تكون نادرة ويصعب العثور عليها في الخزانات أو المكتبات. والمعلوماتية هنا مفيدة لتعويض الميكروفيلم الذي يتطلب جهاز قراءة مرهق. وإذا كانت العديد من المكتبات قد بادرت برقمنة ممتلكاتها، فذلك أيضا لضمان الاحتفاظ بنسخ احتياطية منها، ذلك أن كل الكتب المنشورة منذ القرن التاسع عشر هي معرضة لخطر التلف بسبب الحمض الموجود في عجينة الورق. ورقمنتها تُنقذها بكلفة منخفضة من موت محقق. في بعض المكتبات الأمريكية، معظم الكتب المتاحة للجمهور هي طبعات ورقية جديدة لكتب مرقمنة. وميزة الكتاب الإلكتروني الأخرى هي سهولة نشره. ففي المجال الأنجلوساكسوني، استهدفت جمعية جتنبرغ نشر 10000 عنوان أنجليزي من الأدب العالمي في شبكة الأنترنت بحلول عام 2001. وفي فرنسا، دعمت وزارة الثقافة والفرنكفونية المشروع الأوروبي للمكتبة العالمية الذي أطلقته مجموعة السبع في عام 1995 بأهداف مماثلة، في حين قامت رابطة عشاق الكتب العالمي بالعمل نفسه بخصوص المجال الفرنكفوني.
فهرسة المتون
أما النوع الثاني، فيمثله نشر نص أو متن من النصوص مرفقة بأدوات للبحث والقراءة. خلافا للمستوى الأول الذي لا يستخدم المعلوماتية سوى وسيلة لنشر النصوص بغرض طباعتها في وقت لاحق (كيف يمكن قراءة بروست على الشاشة في الحالة الراهنة لشاشات العرض؟)، ويتم النشر هنا من منظور قراءة عالمة وغير خطية. وتتيح برامج معلوماتية التدخل في النصوص على نحو سيستغرق وقتا طويلا ومجهودا كبيرا لو كان «يدويا»، وبذلك صار بالإمكان إقامة ترابطات بين النصوص، وفهرستها، ووضع جداول للتواترات المعجمية، وإنتاج رسوم بيانية للتحليل العاملي وما إلى ذلك. وخير مثال على هذه الإمكانيات تقدمه أعمالُ المعهد الوطني للغة الفرنسية أو أعمال إتيان برونيه التي تستخدم قاعدة بيانات فرانتكست Frantext، وهي مجموعة تشتمل على ما يقرب من 3000 كتابا رقميا تغطي الحقبة الممتدة من القرن الخامس عشر الميلادي إلى أيامنا هذه. وقد أنتجت دار النشر Hachette باشتراك مع الـ INaLF قرصا مدمجا يحتوي على 300 كتاب مقتطف من قاعدة فرانتكست. مثال آخر: نشرت دار أكاديمياAcamedia الأعمال الكاملة لألكسندر دوماس، وشاتوبريان، وبلزاك، على قرص مدمج. على عكس فرانتكست، لا يمكن قراءة الأعمال كما تُقرأ الكتب، ولكن أدوات للبحث تسمح بالتجول في جميع أنحاء العمل انطلاقا من أي مفردة أو سلسلة من الحروف أو المفردات للعثور على المقاطع التي تحتوي عليها، وهذه أداة ممتازة للباحثين والطلاب، وحتى التلاميذ.
الكتاب الالكتروني
أخيرا، المستوى الثالث هو مستوى النص الموجه للقراءة الخطية على الشاشة في شروط شبيهة بشروط قراءة الكتاب الورقي. كانت منشورات 00:00 أول دار نشر تلج النشر على الخط بأكثر من 500 عنوان، وتشكل اليوم، مع مايكروسوفت وهافاس وبارنز ونوبل وآخرين، جزءا من مروجي الكتاب الإلكتروني. ويكمن الابتكار الكبير لهذا المنتوج في كونه يتيح قراءة مريحة لا توفرها أجهزة الكمبيوتر المكتبية. فالكتاب الإلكتروني يُمسَك باليد، ويمكن حمله إلى سائر الأمكنة، ويتوفر على تقنيات عرض عالية الجودة. ومع أن حجمه منخفض، فهو يمكن أن يحتوي على ما يصل إلى 50 كتابا يمكن تقميشها، وقراءتها قراءة مسترسلة، كما يمكن التجول داخله من خلال الروابط التشعبية وأدوات البحث، وبذلك يتوقع له معظم المحللين مستقبلا مشرقا.
التراث يتحرك
ومع ذلك، بالدخول في منطق محاكاة الكتاب الورقي المطمئن بالتأكيد، لا ينبغي للكتاب الإلكتروني أن يحجب التحولات العميقة التي تدخلها التكنولوجيا الرقمية على علاقتنا بالتراث الأدبي. فالتخلي عن الورق – صحيح أنه نسبي جدا، ولكن لا مفر منه في نهاية المطاف – يجب أن يدفعنا إلى التفكير منذ الآن في الآفاق الجديدة التي تنتظرنا وإلى تخيل المشهد التراثي الذي سيتوفر لأطفالنا.
فاختفاء الكتاب، سواء أتحقق غدا أو بعد غد، كليا أو جزئيا، سيطبعُ بالنسبة لنا نهاية دورة وبداية دورة أخرى أود وضعها هنا تحت علامة تحرير النص – أو أكثر تواضعا – تحت إزاحة الكتاب من موطنه على حد تعبير جيل دولوز. ولهذه الإزاحة ثلاث عواقب، هي: تشتيت النص، وتفكيك الحوامل التقليدية، ثم التداخل مع وسائط أخرى.
تشتت النص
النتيجة الأولى لرقمنة النصوص هي عرضها للتكاثر. فلنسخ رواية بلزاك لا يحتاج حاسوبي لأكثر من 10 ثوان، ولإرسالها إلى الجانب الآخر من العالم عبر الإنترنت لا يستغرق الأمر أكثر من بضع دقائق. تقود هذه السهولة المذهلة للاستنساخ إلى تشتت النصوص في شبكة من الشبكات. وأترك لباقي المتدخلين مهمة دراسة النتائج المترتبة على قانون حقوق النشر لأقتصر على ما يحدث للنص نفسه في ظل هذه الظروف. فنسخ النص من جهاز كمبيوتر هو بالتأكيد أكثر وثوقية من المخطوطات القديمة، ولكن من المستحيل ضمان أن يكون النص الذي يروج على هذا النحو وفيا لنسخته الأصلية الورقية، وبالتالي فمع شبكة الإنترنت، يُجازف اليومَ بالعودة إلى اختلافات المخطوطات القديمة أو حتى إلى التباينات التي تميز روايات الأدب الشفوي.
ويُضاف إلى خطر التباين خطرُ السرقة والانتحال. فباستخدام تقنية القص واللصق، يمكن لأي كان أن يستولي على نصوص الغير دون علم مؤلفيها، وبذلك تجد الصورة الرمزية للمؤلف باعتباره ضامنا للنص معرضة للتقويض. فهذه الصورة ترتبط في تاريخ الأدب ارتباطا وثيقا بالكتاب، وباختفاء الكتاب قد نجد أنفسنا في الوضع السائد قبل ظهوره: سوف يوجد – بل هناك بالفعل – مؤلفون مجهولون في شبكة الأنترنت ومؤلفات جماعية ومؤلفون غير معروفي الهوية.
ويطرح هذا التشتت للنصوص خارج مؤسسة النشر التقليدية أيضا مشكلة الوساطة بين المؤلف وقرائه. ففي عالم الكتاب المطبوع، الناشرُ هو من يقوم بهذه الوساطة، ويتمثل دوره في الكشف عن مؤلفين لقراء وإيجاد قراء لهؤلاء المؤلفين. أما على شبكة الإنترنت، فيمكن لأي شخص أن ينشر كتاباته وينصب نفسه مؤلفا، وبالتالي فنحن نشهد انتشار كتابات على الشبكة وتعميما لما يمكن تسميته بالوساطة الذاتية، وهي عملية يمكن أن تبعث على السرور والأسف في آن: يمكن أن نسعد بها لأن الوصول المباشر إلى النشر يتخطى مصفاة الناشرين الذين يقصون بعض الكتابات ظلما أحيانا، ويمكن أن نأسف لها لأنه بدون وجود وسيط من غير المؤكد أن يحصل الكتاب على جمهور قراء. وأمام انتشار كتابات على نحو واسع، غالبا ما يصادف القارئ التائه عموما صعوبة كبرى في العثور على ضالته. ومن المحتمل أن يجد الناشرون مكانتهم في شبكة الأنترنت في المستقبل، لكنهم سيواجهون منافسة جهات أخرى، كالجامعات، ومجتمعات القراء، وبوابات التسويق التي ستشكل أيضا مرجعيات. هذا ما لم تتحقق نبوءة ميشال فوكو القائلة بأنه «يمكن تخيل ثقافة تروج فيها الخطابات وتتلقى في غياب مطلق لوظيفة المؤلف».
تفكيك المكتبة
والنتيجة الثانية للرقمنة هي تفكيك النص باختفاء اثنين من ركائز تراثنا الأساسية، هما الكتاب والمكتبة.
كثيرا ما قيل عن الأنترنت بأنها مكتبة العالم الجديدة. كانت هذه على كل حال بالتأكيد هي رغبة قدماء أسلاف الشبكة، وهما تيد نلسون وفانيفار بوش. ولكن هذه المكتبة، بتصميمها نفسه الذي هو عبارة عن شبكة غير هرمية، إنما تعرض مظاهر غياب تام لأي نظام، وذلك بخلاف المكتبة التقليدية التي كانت تطمح لتنظيم المعارف حسب ترتيب منطقي يتيح للقارئ أن يعثر بسهولة على الكتاب الذي يبحث عنه. فترتيب الأجنحة والرفوف وإنشاء فهارس، بما فيها تلك المحوسبة على شكل قواعد بيانات، كل ذلك يسهم في تنظيم المعلومات. في حين تتميز شبكة الأنترنت الافتراضية بلا مركزيتها ولا تلبي هذه المعايير. هناك طريقتان للبحث على المعلومات في الشبكة: فإما يكون المرء مثل الصياد الذي يلقي شباكه من الشاطئ أو من سفينته، ثم يفرز بعد ذلك ما حصل عليه (وهذه هي طريقة محركات البحث في شبكة الإنترنت) أو يمارس الصيد تحت الماء بارتمائه وغطسه وتجوله بين الشعاب للوصول إلى المشاهد المخبأة فيها (وهذه هي طريقة الإبحار النص-تشعبية). في كلتا الحالتين، لا يوجد بناء مسبق للمعارف. في الإبحار، غالبا ما تخضع وجاهة البحث لخبرة مصمم الروابط. لذلك من الضروري إنشاء مكتبات افتراضية مرجعية، وبوابات تقدم سمعتها وخبراتها ضمانة. ولموقع وزارة الثقافة الفرنسية، على سبيل المثال، طموح للعب هذا الدور في المجال الثقافي.
تفكيك الكتاب
الكتاب هو الضحية الأخرى لهذا التفكيك. فمع الرقمية، يتم تقويض كل أجهزة الكتاب الفكرية والمادية، بمعنى أنه يتعين إعادة النظر في مجموع أدوات القراءة ومواضعاتها. فقد تم محو حدود الكتاب المادية، التي هي أيضا حدود فكرية، وذلك في اتجاهين: نحو الأعلى بالانتقال من مفهوم الكتاب إلى مفهوم المتن، ونحو الأسفل بالانتقال من مفهوم العمل إلى مفهوم المقطع أو الشذرة.. فسعة التخزين الكبيرة للحوامل الجديدة تتيحُ نشر متون كاملة بدلا من الاقتصار على أعمال فردية. لماذا الاقتصار عل نشر عمل مثل دَوْقة لانجي Duchesse de Langeais عندما يمكن الحصول في قرص مدمج واحد على الكوميديا البشرية بكاملها؟ ولكن هذا يطرح سؤال كيف يمكن قراءة الكوميديا البشرية بطريقة مسترسلة؟ بالتالي، فالرقمية تدعو إلى أشكال جديدة من القراءة. يمكنني، على سبيل المثال، أن أبحث في أي كتاب يَذكُر ألكسندر دوماس هذا الحي من مدينة باريس أو ذاك، ومن هم كتاب القرن التاسع عشر الذين كتبوا عن السكك الحديدية، وما هي آراء شاتوبريان في الحب، وما هي الحيوانات الأليفة المفضلة عند كوليت؟، وما إلى ذلك. على هذا النحو يصير المقطع هو وحدة النص، ولا تعود القراءة خطية، إذ تأخذ شكل رحلة أو تنقل بين مقاطع. وإذا ما أتاح الجهاز الانتقال من النص إلى النص التشعبي، فإنَّ ذلك يتم بتفعيل الروابط بمجرد نقرة بسيطة على الماوس (أو الفأرة) أو الضغط على زر والانتقال من صفحة إلى أخرى. هل يجب الحديث في هذه الحالة عن قراءة سطحية وهو ما لا يتردد البعض في القول به بخصوص النص التشعبي؟ هذه ليست وجهة نظري.
في الواقع، القراءة هي تحيين كائن افتراضي اسمه النص. ولا يُقرأ نص ما، باعتباره نصا تشعبيا، أبدا في مجمله، إذ لا يستطيع قارئ بمفرده إطلاقا أن يحيِّنَ النص الواحد في كليته. فالنص، مثله مثل النص التشعبي، يكون مليئا بالثقوب والحفر، وبالتالي فأجزاء كاملة من نسيجه تبقى في الظل، في انتظار القارئ القادم، وقراءة نص ما ليست هي عبور خطيته، بل هي إقامة تقاربات وقفزات، بتوجيه من المؤلف أو بدون توجيه منه.
وقراءة النص، كما يقول بيير ليفي جيدا، هي ربطه بـ «مجموع الاحتياطي الهائل المتذبذب من الرغبات والعلامات التي تشكلنا.»
بهذا المعنى، أليست كل قراءة هي قراءة نصية – تشعبية؟ ربما هذا ما يُذكر به دانيال بيناك دون أن يعلم عندما يسوق في كتابه الذي يحمل عنوان مثل رواية حقوق الطفل القارئ غير القابلة للتقادم، وهي:
- الحق في عدم القراءة
- الحق في تخطي الصفحات
- الحق في عدم إنهاء قراءة الكتاب
- الحق في إعادة قراءته
- الحق في قراءة أي شيء
- الحق في البوفارية (مرض منقول نصيا)
- الحق في القراءة في أي مكان
- الحق في القراءة عشوائيا.
- 9. الحق في القراءة بصوت مرتفع
- الحق في التزام الصمت
وإذا اقتضى الأمر تقديم ضمانة قارئ كبير، فإني أقترح عليكم ما يقوله رولان بارت في مؤلفه «هسهسة اللغة »(1):
«”[…] يحمل السرد الأكثر تقليدية (رواية زولا، بلزاك، ديكنز، تولستوي) في طياته نوعا من الفواصل الضعيفة: فنحن لا نقرأ كل شيء بالحماس نفسه، إذ يتولد نوع من الإيقاع الـعرضي القليل الامتثال للنص بكامله؛ بل يقودنا جشع المعرفة إلى تخطي بعض الفقرات (التي تولد لدينا انطباعا بأنها «مملة») لكي نعثر في أسرع وقت على الأماكن الساخنة في الحكاية (وتكون دائما تمفصلاتها: ما يسرِّع إزاحة الستار عن فك اللغز أو يكشف عن المصير): نحن نقفز، مفلتين من العقاب (إذ لا أحد يرانا)، على الوصف وعلى الشروحات والحيثيات والمحادثات […] هو خطأ ينحدر من مبدأ وظيفي بسيط: خطأ لا يحدث داخل بنية اللغات، ولكن فقط في وقت استهلاكها؛ ولا يمكن للمؤلف أن يتنبأ به: فهو لن يرغب في كتابة ما لن يُقرأ، ومع ذلك فإيقاع ما يُقرأ وما لا يُقرأ هو ما يمنح القصص العظيمة لذتها: هل قرأنا في يوم ما بروست، وبلزاك ورواية الحرب والسلم كلمة كلمة؟ (سعادة بروست: من قراءة إلى أخرى، لا نتخطى الفقرات نفسها أبدا».
تفكيك النص
يثير كل عصر جديد الحنينَ إلى العصور القديمة وأحيانا إضفاء هالة أسطورية عليها. وفي العصر الرقمي، لدينا الحنين إلى الاستقرار واليقين اللذين كان يضمنهما النص المحدود، المغلق داخل غلافه، والموضوع على رف المكتبة. ولكن النقد الأدبي ونظرية المعرفة المعاصرة علمانا أن نكون حذرين من التبسيط. وسآخذ مثالين عما أتاحت رقمنة النصوص تسليط الضوء عليه، وهما التناص والتوليد النصي.
فالتناص الذي سبق أن نظرت له جوليا كريستيفا هُوَ العلاقة الكامنة أو الواضحة الموجودة بين نص ما وباقي النصوص التي غذتهُ والتي تشكل ما يمكن تسميته بمكتبته. ومن خلال الروابط التشعبية، يقوم النص الرقمي بأجرأة هذه العلاقة من خلال السماح للقارئ بالرجوع، إذا شاء، إلى النصوص التي يردد المؤلف أصداءها أو ينسج نصه بخيوطها.
وبخصوص التوليد النصي، يتيح النص التشعبي للقارئ أن يعرضَ جميع نسخ مسوداته التي تشكل ما قبل نص العمل، وهو ما لم تكن تتيحه الطبعات الورقية على الإطلاق، وبذلك يصير القارئ قادرا على تقييم العمل ليس في نسخته النهائية الثابتة، ولكن في مراحل كتابته على نحو ما صممها المؤلف واجتازها.
أخيرا، يرى بعض الكتاب المعاصرين أنّ تفكيك النصّ هو أيضا وسيلة لتجنب قواعد الخطية الموروثة من حامل عصر الكتاب في تجريب أشكال أخرى من الكتابة أقل خضوعا للبلاغة وأقرب إلى طريقة اشتغال الدماغ الفعلية. وتؤذن هذه الكتابات الشذرية (أفكر في فتجنشتاين أو بارت) أو المتاهية (أفكر في جاك روبو من بين آخرين) بدون شك بما ما يمكن أن تكون عليه الكتابة التي تستغل الموارد الرقمية استغلالا كاملا.
إغنــاء التراث
أخيرا، يجب إثارة مسألة تداخل النص مع وسائط أخرى الذي تتيحه الرقمية. فلأول مرة يجتمع كل من النص والصورة والصوت والأشكال المتحركة في حامل واحد. ولأول مرة، صار بالإمكان تيسير وصول القارئ إلى هذه الوسائط عبر برامج تفاعلية. ومن جانب الإبداع، نشأت أنواع أدبية جديدة كالنصوص المولدة بالحاسوب والشعر المتحرك والمحكي التشعبي. وستشكل هذه الأعمال الافتراضية، أو الأدب الافتراضي أو الشبكي، كما تسمى في بعض الأحيان، جزءا كاملا من تراث الغد. وبحسب الرأي الواسع ستشهد الأعمال الكلاسيكية حياة جديدة من خلال إخراجها في وجه جديد بالوسائط الآنفة، إذ تمَّ إعادة وضع سانت أكزوبيري وفكتور هوجو وبروست وبيريك وإلوارد أو كينو في سياق عصرهم من خلال وثائق رسمية خطية أو بعرضهم مُحاطين بفنانين ألهمومهم لم يكن بالإمكان سماع أعمالهم أو مشاهدتها من قبل. يمكن مشاهدة العروض المسرحية بسائر إخراجاتها، كما يمكن للشعراء أن يلقوا قصائدهم بأنفسهم أو بألسنة أشخاص آخرين. ويعرض موقع أمريكي مخصص لبوكاتشيو تقريبا كل ما يتعلق بهذا الكتاب الإيطالي، بما في ذلك مقتطفات من فليم بازوليني. وتتيح بعض الأقراص المدمجة مثل قرص الآلات الكاتبة الذي صدر عن دار النشر غاليمار للقارئ تعلّم الكتابة نفسها. كما تقترح أقراص أخرى دروسا في تعلم الموسيقى. ويمكن اعتبار هذا الانصهار للوسائط المتعددة بمثابة مصادر للتسلية من أجل إبعادنا عن الأعمال أو على العكس بمثابة دعوة لاكتشاف هذه الأعمال وإعادة اكتشافها. وهي في سائر الأحوال تمثل بالنسبة للشباب فرصة لولوج عالم الأدب الذي لا يمكن إلا أن يغويهم ويخلق فيهم رغبة الذهاب إلى النصوص.
راهنُ الكتاب الرقمي اليوم هو الكتاب الإلكتروني. فهو من بعض النواحي يجسد رؤية مطمئنة للكتاب الرقمي. وبفضله، يجد النص الرقمي بعد تحرره من الورق حاملا مستقرا يدخله مجددا في جهاز يعيد إنتاج الكتاب المادي الكلاسيكي. من وجهة نظر اقتصادية، قد يصبحُ مادة تجارية، ومن وجهة نظر الناشرين والمؤلفين، هو يوفر ضمانات هوية مطابقة لتلك التي يمنحها الكتاب الورقي. ولكنه وراء مظاهره يحجبُ إمكانيات الرقمية الحقيقية على نحو ما حاولتُ تقديمها إليكم.
يصعبُ اليوم التكهن بما إذا كانت الرقمية ستكون هي مستقبل النص أم أنها ستكون مستقبل الكتاب فقط. فكلما ظهر وسيط جديد بدا هذا الأخير وكأنه يريد أن يحل محل سابقه. في الواقع نحن نعرف جيدا أنه نادرا ما يسود في هذا المجال منطق التكامل بدل منطق الاستبدال. فالسينما لم تعوض المسرح، والتلفزيون لم يحل محل السينما، والحاسوب لم يحل محل التلفزيون. وبذلك، سوف نواصل قراءة الكتب لبعض الوقت، كما سنظل في حاجة إلى الاستقرار في زمن القراءة. لقد كتب رولان بارث أنه «لا يوجد، ولم يوجد أبدا وفي أي مكان شعبٌ بدون حكايات». ونرى أن السرد، كسائر الأشكال الخطابية الخطية المرتبطة بالكتاب، هو ما يحل عقدة العالم ويعيد تنظيمه. إلا أنه لم يعد من الممكن تجاهل أن العالم الذي نعيش فيه يصير متزايد التعقيد بمقدار تزايد فهمنا له على نحو أفضل. إن عصر المعلومات الرقمية هو عصر الشبكات، والشأن الافتراضي، والترحال، ووفرة العرض، وفوران الرسائل والملفوظات. وهذا العالم هو العالم سيتعين على أطفال اليوم أن يعيشوا فيه ويشقوا طريقهم. ولكي يجدوا مكانهم فيه، فسيجب عليهم بدون شك أن يحملوا فيه كتبهم وحواسيبهم.
جان كليمون Jean Clément
أستاذ بشعبة الوسائط التشعبية
جامعة سان دُني (باريس 8)
هامش:
عنوان الكتاب الأصلي Le bruissement de la langue، وقد ترجمه بالعنوان الآنف، د. منذر عياشي، وصدر عن دار الإنماء الحضاري، حلب، 1999 (521ص.) (المترجم).
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